Perseverance of Indigenous Resistance & Sovereignty as Survival
This recurring theme is at the heart of Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz’s book and is continually present throughout the book from start to finish. Her repeated anecdotes and examples of Indigenous resistance from the beginning of European colonization to the present day show the ongoing nature of centuries of struggle. It also demonstrates the incomplete nature of the struggle for Indigenous survival and sovereignty. Dunbar-Ortiz, through her examples, explains that resistance can manifest in numerous forms. As she notes, “[p]eople do not hand over their land, resources, children, and futures without a fight” (pg. 8).
As Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz herself demonstrates, one means of resisting is to illuminate the reality of the past as part of educating U.S. society, which has fallen into the trap of its own origin myth. Telling the story of the history of the United States through an Indigenous perspective is a means of keeping Indigenous history and culture alive and resists the efforts to make Indigenous people disappear into larger U.S. society. Dunbar-Ortiz also reinforces the importance of Indigenous sovereignty through her particular use of language or quotes that reject U.S.-based terminology or names of particular places. For instance, she describes what is commonly referred to in U.S. history textbooks as the “American Revolution” as the “separatist war” (pg. 76). Similarly, in practicing affirming Indigenous sovereignty, Dunbar-Ortiz carefully points out that wars against Indigenous nations should be considered the first foreign wars. While it may seem small or subtle, there is a noticeable difference between her language and what readers may be accustomed to, which serves her goal of bringing attention to a U.S.-centric history.
To some Indigenous peoples, resistance even sometimes took the form of fighting against their own people, such as elite Muskogees who others in the community felt had betrayed their values. In contrast, groups like the Red Sticks symbolize the consistent resistance to assimilation through persistent effort to maintain Indigenous culture and values. Similarly, some Lakotas resisted the tribal government they felt was colluding with the U.S. federal government and putting the community at harm, and their resistance culminated in the 1973 Wounded Knee siege. Examples such as these illuminate this theme further by showing all the many ways in which Indigenous people have had to resist. It further reflects the widespread and pernicious effects of colonialism.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz characterizes sovereignty as the ultimate goal of Indigenous resistance and activism. Most forms of resistance are asserting sovereignty, and Dunbar-Ortiz is insistent in emphasizing the need for sovereignty as a means of survival and lack of it as a source of social troubles. Dunbar-Ortiz details precolonial Indigenous nations and communities and underscores how they thrived and flourished in many ways, and the key to this was their sovereignty. Thus, the piecemeal chipping away of Indigenous sovereignty once the Europeans arrived has led to a complete breaking down of Indigenous society, culture, and values. Furthermore, by discussing modern and recent examples of Indigenous activism, she demonstrates how the struggle continues in efforts to gain restitution and reparations.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz hopes the reader will come away understanding that despite centuries of attempts to crush Indigenous peoples they have survived. While popular culture and sentiment may have created a narrative of a disappearing Indigenous population that continues to persist, Indigenous nations have emphatically made their survival and presence known and will continue to do so.
As Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz herself demonstrates, one means of resisting is to illuminate the reality of the past as part of educating U.S. society, which has fallen into the trap of its own origin myth. Telling the story of the history of the United States through an Indigenous perspective is a means of keeping Indigenous history and culture alive and resists the efforts to make Indigenous people disappear into larger U.S. society. Dunbar-Ortiz also reinforces the importance of Indigenous sovereignty through her particular use of language or quotes that reject U.S.-based terminology or names of particular places. For instance, she describes what is commonly referred to in U.S. history textbooks as the “American Revolution” as the “separatist war” (pg. 76). Similarly, in practicing affirming Indigenous sovereignty, Dunbar-Ortiz carefully points out that wars against Indigenous nations should be considered the first foreign wars. While it may seem small or subtle, there is a noticeable difference between her language and what readers may be accustomed to, which serves her goal of bringing attention to a U.S.-centric history.
To some Indigenous peoples, resistance even sometimes took the form of fighting against their own people, such as elite Muskogees who others in the community felt had betrayed their values. In contrast, groups like the Red Sticks symbolize the consistent resistance to assimilation through persistent effort to maintain Indigenous culture and values. Similarly, some Lakotas resisted the tribal government they felt was colluding with the U.S. federal government and putting the community at harm, and their resistance culminated in the 1973 Wounded Knee siege. Examples such as these illuminate this theme further by showing all the many ways in which Indigenous people have had to resist. It further reflects the widespread and pernicious effects of colonialism.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz characterizes sovereignty as the ultimate goal of Indigenous resistance and activism. Most forms of resistance are asserting sovereignty, and Dunbar-Ortiz is insistent in emphasizing the need for sovereignty as a means of survival and lack of it as a source of social troubles. Dunbar-Ortiz details precolonial Indigenous nations and communities and underscores how they thrived and flourished in many ways, and the key to this was their sovereignty. Thus, the piecemeal chipping away of Indigenous sovereignty once the Europeans arrived has led to a complete breaking down of Indigenous society, culture, and values. Furthermore, by discussing modern and recent examples of Indigenous activism, she demonstrates how the struggle continues in efforts to gain restitution and reparations.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz hopes the reader will come away understanding that despite centuries of attempts to crush Indigenous peoples they have survived. While popular culture and sentiment may have created a narrative of a disappearing Indigenous population that continues to persist, Indigenous nations have emphatically made their survival and presence known and will continue to do so.
The United States Way of War from the Past to the Present
Although she does not explicitly start discussing the “way of war” until Chapter 4, this theme is explored first in context of a culture of conquest that developed in Europe and was brought to the colonies across the Atlantic. By discussing first events such as the Crusades or British colonization of Ireland, Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz identifies certain practices or methods of conquering and eliminating peoples that would later be present in the colonies. This is especially notable when she discusses the Ulster-Scots and their experiences as settler-colonialists in Ireland before their arrival in the British colonies in North America. The entire concept of settler colonialism, Dunbar-Ortiz asserts, depends on “violence or the threat of violence to attain its goals” (pg. 8). This is a key point as it serves as a foundation for the way of war that would develop to support a system of settler colonialism.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz uses several descriptive terms to characterize the way of war, such as unlimited warfare, total warfare, and especially irregular warfare. The defining method of this type of warfare is targeting civilians, but can include destroying food supplies, using germ warfare, burning and looting towns, and scalp hunting, among other things.
There appears to be no shortage of quotes, figures, and events that reflect this way of war from the beginning of colonization through modern day. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz demonstrates that the goal against Indigenous peoples was always genocidal in nature. Dunbar-Ortiz relies on primary sources of quotes from well-known historical figures, such as U.S. presidents or historical figures revered as heroes even to this day, to illuminate the approach and views that earlier settler-colonialists and Anglo-Americans had of Indigenous people. For instance, the way George Washington ordered to destroy the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) confederacy is notable. Likewise, quotes from U.S. general Thomas S. Jesup regarding exterminating Seminoles reveal a policy of annihilation sitting in plain sight to anyone who looks at U.S. history. She sums it up in her statement that “the policy of genocide was embedded in the highest office of the US government” (pg. 97). These are the narratives that have historically been glossed over, ignored, or downplayed in U.S. history education.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz explores this theme in early examples, such as John Smith threatening the Powhatans, and carries it into modern day by referring to more recent U.S. Presidents as following the paths laid out for them in the past. For example, Dunbar-Ortiz refers to militarism under President Bush and presents President Obama as one of many presidents who advanced imperialism.
A key aspect of this theme is that the wars against Indigenous people became a template for overseas imperialism. To illustrate this, Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz draws a direct link, or a “red thread of blood” from the past to the present (pg. 196). Dunbar-Ortiz explores how this link has stayed alive in many ways, such as through military culture, popular culture, and in the origin myth.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz uses several descriptive terms to characterize the way of war, such as unlimited warfare, total warfare, and especially irregular warfare. The defining method of this type of warfare is targeting civilians, but can include destroying food supplies, using germ warfare, burning and looting towns, and scalp hunting, among other things.
There appears to be no shortage of quotes, figures, and events that reflect this way of war from the beginning of colonization through modern day. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz demonstrates that the goal against Indigenous peoples was always genocidal in nature. Dunbar-Ortiz relies on primary sources of quotes from well-known historical figures, such as U.S. presidents or historical figures revered as heroes even to this day, to illuminate the approach and views that earlier settler-colonialists and Anglo-Americans had of Indigenous people. For instance, the way George Washington ordered to destroy the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) confederacy is notable. Likewise, quotes from U.S. general Thomas S. Jesup regarding exterminating Seminoles reveal a policy of annihilation sitting in plain sight to anyone who looks at U.S. history. She sums it up in her statement that “the policy of genocide was embedded in the highest office of the US government” (pg. 97). These are the narratives that have historically been glossed over, ignored, or downplayed in U.S. history education.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz explores this theme in early examples, such as John Smith threatening the Powhatans, and carries it into modern day by referring to more recent U.S. Presidents as following the paths laid out for them in the past. For example, Dunbar-Ortiz refers to militarism under President Bush and presents President Obama as one of many presidents who advanced imperialism.
A key aspect of this theme is that the wars against Indigenous people became a template for overseas imperialism. To illustrate this, Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz draws a direct link, or a “red thread of blood” from the past to the present (pg. 196). Dunbar-Ortiz explores how this link has stayed alive in many ways, such as through military culture, popular culture, and in the origin myth.
The Falsehood of the United States Origin Myth and United States Exceptionalism
Several concepts have helped develop, refine, or reinforce the origin narrative and U.S. exceptionalism, in particular the Doctrine of Discovery, Calvinist covenant ideology, Manifest Destiny, and white supremacy. Through these, Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz shows that U.S. policies are shrouded in these ideologies and thus genocidal war and destruction is transformed into natural expansion westward under the idea of divine destiny. Modern-day policies also remain rooted in these ideologies. These ideologies feed other myths, such as the Doctrine of Discovery creating the idea of the Americas as a “New World,” which Dunbar-Ortiz breaks down by showing numerous civilizations and thriving life prior to European colonization.
If policies aren’t enough of a reminder, U.S. culture is overflowing with symbols that reflect the country’s past wars against Indigenous peoples from names, statutes, sports teams, military terminology, to movies, arts, and other popular culture. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz’s argument is that no price was too high to pay for settlers as they expanded their way across the continent, and any shameful history was eventually swept under the rug easily with rhetoric that emphasized freedom, liberty, or historical heroes and their courageous sacrifices. When this is examined in the present day, we can still see the origin myth and U.S. exceptionalism operating. For example, the founders of the United States are held in an almost untouchable position of respect and admiration where criticism is almost blasphemous. Likewise, Dunbar- Ortiz illuminates the way in which this theme operates with respect to hero narratives. Dunbar-Ortiz highlights the ways in which men, such as William Henry Harrison or Andrew Jackson, who had built their careers on killing Indigenous people, became revered heroes or even later used that career to become president.
This is precisely the problem Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz wishes to tackle. Sundar-Ortiz believes an overly positive twist on U.S. history or the problematic aspects of historical figures hurts everyone and does nothing to solve issues that arise from a past that remains unacknowledged.
One of the main takeaways Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz tries to ensure readers understand by breaking down this the origin myth is that the United States is a settler-colonialist state. Dunbar-Ortiz repeatedly identifies the colonialist roots of the U.S. and ongoing effects of colonialism not only on Indigenous peoples but also as a negative force globally. By detailing the colonialism roots in white supremacy, capitalism, and greed, Dunbar-Ortiz explains how its effects still linger today. To Dunbar-Ortiz, the legacy of colonialism is reflected in a “deeply troubled society” (pg. 230). Similarly, she rejects ongoing rhetoric and scholarship that denies a settler-colonialist history.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz's critique of this myth extends to her fellow historians as she explains how traditional historical scholarship has reinforced the origin narrative or fallen into the trap of default assumptions arising from the concept of exceptionalism. For instance, Dunbar-Ortiz's rejection of how attributing the massive decline in Indigenous populations to disease or characterizing it as inevitable shows the ease with which even scholars have reflected bias. The result is a blunt and unrelenting analysis by Dunbar-Ortiz with the goal of having readers question what they have been taught.
If policies aren’t enough of a reminder, U.S. culture is overflowing with symbols that reflect the country’s past wars against Indigenous peoples from names, statutes, sports teams, military terminology, to movies, arts, and other popular culture. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz’s argument is that no price was too high to pay for settlers as they expanded their way across the continent, and any shameful history was eventually swept under the rug easily with rhetoric that emphasized freedom, liberty, or historical heroes and their courageous sacrifices. When this is examined in the present day, we can still see the origin myth and U.S. exceptionalism operating. For example, the founders of the United States are held in an almost untouchable position of respect and admiration where criticism is almost blasphemous. Likewise, Dunbar- Ortiz illuminates the way in which this theme operates with respect to hero narratives. Dunbar-Ortiz highlights the ways in which men, such as William Henry Harrison or Andrew Jackson, who had built their careers on killing Indigenous people, became revered heroes or even later used that career to become president.
This is precisely the problem Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz wishes to tackle. Sundar-Ortiz believes an overly positive twist on U.S. history or the problematic aspects of historical figures hurts everyone and does nothing to solve issues that arise from a past that remains unacknowledged.
One of the main takeaways Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz tries to ensure readers understand by breaking down this the origin myth is that the United States is a settler-colonialist state. Dunbar-Ortiz repeatedly identifies the colonialist roots of the U.S. and ongoing effects of colonialism not only on Indigenous peoples but also as a negative force globally. By detailing the colonialism roots in white supremacy, capitalism, and greed, Dunbar-Ortiz explains how its effects still linger today. To Dunbar-Ortiz, the legacy of colonialism is reflected in a “deeply troubled society” (pg. 230). Similarly, she rejects ongoing rhetoric and scholarship that denies a settler-colonialist history.
Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz's critique of this myth extends to her fellow historians as she explains how traditional historical scholarship has reinforced the origin narrative or fallen into the trap of default assumptions arising from the concept of exceptionalism. For instance, Dunbar-Ortiz's rejection of how attributing the massive decline in Indigenous populations to disease or characterizing it as inevitable shows the ease with which even scholars have reflected bias. The result is a blunt and unrelenting analysis by Dunbar-Ortiz with the goal of having readers question what they have been taught.